Descendants of the Shiites who fled Baghdad to North Africa during the civil war against the Abbasids in the late eighth century seized power in Ifriqiya (Tunisia) in 910. Their leader, Ubayd Allah al-Mahdi Billah (r. 909–934), claimed descent from Ali and his wife, Fatima, the daughter of the Prophet, and thus called the dynasty the Fatimids. Driven out of Ifriqiya by a popular revolt in 970, the Fatimids relocated to Egypt, where they founded the city of Cairo in 972. At the height of its power, the Fatimid empire stretched from the Maghrib to Sicily, Palestine, Syria, the coast of the Red Sea, Yemen, and the Arabian Hijaz.

? ? ? ? ? 法蒂瑪什葉派通過被稱為“達瓦”(“邀請，呼喚”)的高度組織化的宣傳機器機制進行傳播。法蒂瑪什葉派在九世紀末組織了“達瓦”，最初是在伊拉克，它是一個秘密的中央傳教運動，其宣傳員被稱為“達伊”，他們接受過什葉派信仰的培訓(xùn)，被派往東邊的雷伊、梅爾夫、呼羅珊、內(nèi)沙布爾、河中地區(qū)、錫斯坦和印度；向南到也門和巴林；向西到馬格里布地區(qū)。充滿魅力的宣傳以其對《古蘭經(jīng)》的深奧解釋和什葉派伊瑪目的英雄傳說吸引了聽眾。法蒂瑪王朝最著名的傳教士是偉大的波斯詩人和旅行作家納塞爾·胡斯洛（Nasr i-Khosraw，1004-1072），他是著名的旅行書《游記》（Safar-nama）的作者，他在書中描述了自己從遜尼派皈依什葉派伊斯蘭教的過程。

Fatimid Shiism spread through the mechanism of a highly organized propaganda machine known as the dawa (“invitation, call”). Fatimid Shiites organized the dawa in the late ninth century originally out of Iraq, where it began as a secretive centralized missionary movement whose propagandists, known as dais, were trained in Shiite beliefs and sent forth eastward to Rayy, Merv, Khorasan, Nishapur, Transoxania, Sijistan, and India; southward to Yemen and Bahrain; and westward into the Maghrib. Charismatic dais beguiled their audiences with their esoteric interpretations of the Quran and the heroic legends of the Shiite imams. The Fatimids’ most famous missionary was the great Persian poet and travel writer Nasr i-Khosraw (1004–c. 1072), the author of the famous travel book Safar-nama (The book of the journey), in which he describes his conversion from Sunni to Shii Islam.

? ? ? ? ? 法蒂瑪王朝最大的對手是巴格達的阿拔斯王朝，他們的許多征服行動都是以其為目標(biāo)完成的。阿拔斯王朝于1011年發(fā)表了《巴格達宣言》，以駁斥法蒂瑪王朝的合法性主張，該文件由阿拔斯王朝哈里發(fā)卡迪爾（Abu'l-?Abbas Ahmad ibn Ishaq，996-1021年，在此強調(diào)，此處作出修改，原文史實錯誤，原文如下）委托遜尼派和非法蒂瑪王朝的什葉派學(xué)者組成的聯(lián)合委員會進行編輯。他們指責(zé)法蒂瑪王朝在阿里和法蒂瑪?shù)难y(tǒng)問題上撒謊，并聲稱他們的真正創(chuàng)始人是一個猶太人，因此是“異教徒”國家。哈基姆（哈基姆·比阿穆爾·阿拉，al-Hakim bi Amri Allah，法蒂瑪王朝哈里發(fā)，996年至1021年在位）還在學(xué)術(shù)上與阿拔斯王朝競爭，于1005年建立了Dar al-Ilm（“知識之家”），在那里，學(xué)者們同時教授哲學(xué)、天文學(xué)與伊斯蘭科學(xué)。(哈基姆是一個偏執(zhí)狂和反復(fù)無常的統(tǒng)治者，他還因迫害猶太人和基督徒以及破壞圣墓教堂而聞名）。法蒂瑪?shù)男麄鲀x式包括開創(chuàng) “開齋節(jié)”（mawlids），正式慶祝穆罕默德-阿里、法蒂瑪和其他先知家族成員（Ahl al-Bayt）的生日，以及用塔茲耶（taziya）重建侯賽因的殉教過程來慶祝阿舒拉節(jié)。

The Fatimids’ greatest rivals were the Abbasid caliphs of Baghdad, at whose expense many of their conquests were made. Abbasid propagandists repulsed Fatimid claims of legitimacy by issuing in 1011 the Baghdad Manifesto, a document commissioned by the Abbasid caliph al-Hakim bi Amri Allah (r. 996–1021) to be redacted by a joint commission of Sunni and non-Fatimid Shiite scholars. They accused the Fatimids of lying about their descent from Ali and Fatima and claimed instead that their true founder was a Jew and therefore an “infidel.” AlHakim also competed intellectually with the Abbasids, founding in 1005 the rival Dar al-Ilm (“House of Knowledge”), where philosophy and astronomy were taught alongside the Islamic sciences. (A paranoid and erratic ruler, al-Hakim is also known for his persecution of Jews and Christians and his destruction of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre.) Fatimid propagandistic rituals included the invention of the mawlids, the official celebration of the birthdays of Muhammad Ali, Fatima, and the other members of the Prophet’s family (Ahl al-Bayt) and the emotive celebration of Ashura with passion plays (taziya) reconstructing the martyrdom of Husayn.

? ? ? ? ? 法蒂瑪王朝于11世紀中葉開始衰落，因為馬格里布-茲里德柏柏爾人(Zirid dynasty)在1040年左右反叛并建立了自己的王朝。在塞爾柱人和十字軍的壓力下，他們對黎凡特的控制力減弱了，領(lǐng)土縮小到埃及。1169年，阿尤布王朝的王子薩拉?。ㄗ溆?193年）征服了埃及，并趕走了法蒂瑪政權(quán)。

The Fatimid dynasty began to decline during the mid-11th century as Maghribi Zirid Berbers rebelled and founded their own dynasty circa 1040. Their control of the Levant diminished under pressure from the Seljuks and the crusaders, reducing their holdings to Egypt. In 1169 the Ayyubid prince Saladin (d. 1193) conquered Egypt, ousting the Fatimid dynasty.

阿尤布王朝和馬穆魯克

? ? ? ? ? Mamluk（馬穆魯克）一詞的意思是“奴隸”，在伊斯蘭歷史背景下，它特指招募奴隸的制度，這些奴隸通常來自斯拉夫和土耳其，然后加入軍隊。這種做法始于阿拔斯王朝哈里發(fā)穆塔西姆（al-Mutasim，穆阿臺綏姆，833-842年）的統(tǒng)治時期，他并不受歡迎，這讓他專門建立了一個效忠于自己的精英軍團。在戰(zhàn)斗中被俘的土耳其青年會被帶到薩邁拉，在那里他們會接受基本的伊斯蘭教育，并接受戰(zhàn)爭藝術(shù)和策略的訓(xùn)練。奴隸制保證了馬穆魯克與政治機構(gòu)沒有任何聯(lián)系，因此不會對阿拔斯王朝的統(tǒng)治者構(gòu)成威脅。

The term mamluk means “slave,” and in the context of Islamic history it refers specifically to the institution of recruiting slaves, most often of Slavic and Turkish origin, into the ranks of the army. The practice began during the reign of the Abbasid caliph al-Mutasim (r. 833–842), whose unpopularity led him to create an elite regiment of soldiers exclusively loyal to him. Turkish youths captured during the course of battles were taken to Samarra, where they were given a rudimentary Islamic education and trained in the art and strategies of war. The slave system ensured that the mamluks had no ties with the political establishment and thus would pose no threat to the Abbasid rulers.

? ? ? ? ? 奴隸制士兵的制度在伊斯蘭世界迅速蔓延。他們在擊敗法蒂瑪王朝的阿尤布王朝（庫爾德人的）的軍隊中尤為突出。埃及征服者薩拉丁脫離了塞爾柱人，并宣布建立自己的王朝，并于1174年獲得了蘇丹的稱號。他在耶路撒冷的雅各布津渡之圍（1179年）中給十字軍造成了驚人的損失。當(dāng)拉丁十字軍國家開始騷擾和謀殺穆斯林朝圣者和商人時，薩拉丁對耶路撒冷發(fā)起了進攻，并于1187年占領(lǐng)了整座城市。阿尤布王朝將其領(lǐng)地擴大到整個埃及、敘利亞、也門、伊拉克的部分地區(qū)、麥加和阿拉伯南部。

The institution of slave soldiers spread across the Islamic world. They were especially prominent in the army of the Ayyubids, the Kurdish dynasty who vanquished the Fatimids. Saladin, the conqueror of Egypt, broke away from his Seljuk patrons and declared his own dynasty, assuming the title of sultan in 1174. He inflicted stunning defeats upon the crusaders at the Battle of Jacob’s Ford (1179) in Jerusalem. When the Latin Crusader States began to harass and murder Muslim pilgrims and traders, Saladin launched an offensive against Jerusalem, capturing the entire city in 1187. The Ayyubids would extend their domain over the whole of Egypt, Syria, Yemen, parts of Iraq, Mecca, and southern Arabia.

? ? ? ? ? 薩拉丁于1193年去世后，阿尤布王朝陷入了內(nèi)戰(zhàn)，每一方都用自己的馬穆魯克士兵對付對手的士兵。這種關(guān)于繼承權(quán)的爭斗成為阿尤布王朝統(tǒng)治的特有現(xiàn)象。每當(dāng)一個統(tǒng)治者獲勝時，他都必須給予支持他的馬穆魯克更多的權(quán)力，包括政府中的許多職位和大量的土地所有權(quán)（iqtas）。最后，一位名叫艾巴克（Aibek）的馬穆魯克士兵將軍（卒于1257年）在1250年謀殺了阿尤布王朝的蘇丹圖蘭沙阿，為自己奪取了權(quán)力，建立了巴赫里王朝（1250-1382）。最杰出的馬穆魯克蘇丹是拜巴爾一世（al-Zahir Baibars，1260-77年），他在第七次十字軍東征中戰(zhàn)勝了法國國王路易九世。十年后，拜巴爾殺死了馬穆魯克蘇丹忽禿思（Qutuz）并奪取了政權(quán)。

After Saladin’s death in 1193, the Ayyubids descended into civil war, each party using its mamluk soldiers against those of rivals. Such squabbles over succession became endemic to Ayyubid rule. Each time a ruler prevailed he had to grant more power to the mamluks who supported him, including many positions in the government and extensive landholdings (iqtas). Finally, a mamluk soldier-general named Aibek (d. 1257) murdered the Ayyubid sultan Turanshah in 1250 and seized power for himself, establishing the Bahri Mamluk dynasty (1250– 1382). By far the most extraordinary Mamluk sultan was al-Zahir Baibars (r. 1260–77), who vanquished the French king Louis IX in the Seventh Crusade. A decade later Baibars killed the Mamluk sultan Qutuz and seized power.

? ? ? ? ? 歷屆馬穆魯克王朝繼續(xù)統(tǒng)治著埃及和敘利亞，直到1517年。馬穆魯克形成了一個前所未有的軍事國家，其中許多高級職位都掌握在這些奴隸士兵手中，文職官員也要接受他們的監(jiān)督。由于他們的奴隸出身、非阿拉伯血統(tǒng)以及對錯綜復(fù)雜的伊斯蘭法律和文化的相對陌生，馬穆魯克明智地培養(yǎng)了宗教機構(gòu)和蘇菲教團的支持，而這些宗教機構(gòu)和蘇菲教團的重要性在這一時期已經(jīng)越來越高。他們利用伊斯蘭教的虔誠捐贈（awqaf）制度，涵蓋了所有的基礎(chǔ)，并建立了許多清真寺和宗教學(xué)校，四個遜尼派法律學(xué)校（madhhabs）都有代表。為了進一步提高他們的知名度，他們還贊助流行的宗教節(jié)日，如穆罕默德的生日，并向蘇菲教派和穆斯林圣人的圣地慷慨解囊。馬穆魯克人在建筑方面表現(xiàn)出色，創(chuàng)造了自己獨特的風(fēng)格，包括石雕的豪華裝飾圖案、大理石馬賽克、高聳的尖塔和雕刻精美的大理石米哈拉布（清真寺中指示麥加方向的壁龕）。

Successive Mamluk dynasties would continue to reign over Egypt and Syria until 1517. The Mamluks formed an unprecedented military state in which many senior posts were in the hands of these slave-soldiers, and civilian officials were subject to their supervision. Because of their slave origins, non-Arab pedigree, and relative unfamiliarity with the intricacies of Islamic law and culture, the Mamluks wisely cultivated the support of the religious establishment and the Sufi orders that had grown in importance by this time. Using the Islamic system of pious endowments (awqaf), they covered all their bases and founded numerous mosques and madrasas where all four Sunni legal schools (madhhabs) were represented. To increase their popularity further, they also patronized popular religious festivals, such as Muhammad’s birthday, and gave generously to the Sufi orders and the shrines of Muslim saints. The Mamluks excelled in architecture, creating their own distinct style of lavishly decorated motifs carved in stone, marble mosaics, towering minarets, and exquisitely carved marble mihrabs (the niche in the mosque indicating the direction of Mecca).

從穆斯林角度看十字軍東征

? ? ? ? ? ?中世紀的基督徒和穆斯林對同樣的戰(zhàn)爭和戰(zhàn)爭事件有著截然不同的概念。對于中世紀的基督徒來說，十字軍東征是收復(fù)基督教世界失地的宗教戰(zhàn)爭，尤其是圣地，基督曾在那里生活、傳教和去世。這些土地已被穆斯林征服，但大多數(shù)人口仍是基督徒。阿拉伯歷史學(xué)家并沒有以同樣的方式看待十字軍東征，也沒有使用過十字軍或十字軍東征這個詞。穆斯林編年史家細致入微地描述了與入侵者的戰(zhàn)斗，用比較中性的民族或地理名稱來稱呼他們的敵人，如用“法蘭克人”來形容拉丁裔基督徒，用 “羅馬人”（al-Rum）來形容拜占庭人。穆斯林編年史家和基督教編年史家一樣，也使用 “異教徒”（al-kafirun）等一般貶義詞來描述他們的敵人。有些人甚至使用了邪惡的文字游戲，將阿拉伯文的圣墓教堂（Kanisat al-Qiyama）的名字改為垃圾教堂或糞堆教堂（Kanisat al-Qumama）。穆斯林編年史家還強調(diào)了基督教徒的背信棄義，他們一次又一次地背棄了停戰(zhàn)協(xié)議。他們確實被十字軍的野蠻殘忍所震驚，1099年十字軍占領(lǐng)耶路撒冷后，成千上萬的穆斯林平民和猶太人被屠殺。

Christians and Muslims in the Middle Ages had remarkably different concepts for the same war and warlike events. For medieval Christians the Crusades were religious wars to recover the lost lands of Christendom, especially the Holy Land, where Christ had lived, taught, and died. These had been conquered by the Muslims, but the majority of the population was still Christian. Arab historians do not view the Crusades in the same manner nor did they ever use the word crusade or crusader. Muslim chroniclers describe the battles against the invaders in meticulous detail referring to their enemies by more neutral ethnic or geographic names, such as “the Franks” to describe the Latin Christians and “the Romans” (al-Rum) to describe the Byzantines. Muslim chroniclers, as did their Christian counterparts, also used generic pejoratives such as “the infidels” (al-kafirun) to describe their enemies. Some even used wicked plays on words, converting the name of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Arabic (Kanisat al-Qiyama) to the Church of the Dungheap (Kanisat al-Qumama). Muslim chroniclers also emphasized the perfidy of the Christians who time and again reneged on truce agreements. They were truly stunned by the barbaric cruelty of the crusaders, whose capture of Jerusalem in 1099 resulted in the slaughter of tens of thousands of civilian Muslims and Jews.

? ? ? ? ? 穆斯林可能也意識到，在十字軍使命的同時，對他們進行了神學(xué)和文學(xué)上的攻擊。在第五次十字軍東征期間（1219年），方濟各會的創(chuàng)始人圣方濟各試圖讓蘇丹改信。歐洲的修道院和大學(xué)的神學(xué)家們堅信他們的宗教的優(yōu)越性，并受到穆斯林軍事勝利的威脅，因此產(chǎn)生了大量的宗教論戰(zhàn)。甚至在第一次十字軍東征之前，基督教神學(xué)家就擔(dān)心伊斯蘭教是一種威脅，因為伊斯蘭教的許多征服都發(fā)生在基督教的土地上，許多基督徒已經(jīng)皈依伊斯蘭教或在文化上被阿拉伯化?；浇虒ξ靼嘌篮臀魑骼飴u穆斯林的征服導(dǎo)致了阿拉伯學(xué)術(shù)在歐洲的開始，這門學(xué)科后來被稱為東方學(xué)。在西歐的修道院里，勤奮的修道士們學(xué)習(xí)阿拉伯語，翻譯《古蘭經(jīng)》，并研究其他穆斯林文本，以便能夠拯救基督徒的靈魂，使其不至于皈依伊斯蘭教，而且他們希望在未來的某個時間使穆斯林皈依基督教。修道學(xué)者們還閱讀了先知的傳記，并開始撰寫他們自己的版本，以“證明”他是一個假先知。在圣地、西班牙和北非活動的方濟各會傳教士在向被俘的穆斯林布道時使用了這種宣傳。

Muslims may also have been aware of the theological and literary assault upon them being waged simultaneously with the crusader mission. During the Fifth Crusade (1219) no less than Saint Francis of Assisi, founder of the Franciscan friars, attempted to convert the sultan. Convinced of their religion’s superiority and threatened by the Muslims’ military successes, theologians in the monasteries and universities of Europe produced a great amount of religious polemic. Even prior to the launching of the First Crusade, Christian theologians feared Islam as a threat in view of the fact that so many of the Islamic conquests had occurred in Christian lands and that many Christians had converted to Islam or become culturally Arabized. The Christian conquests of Muslim Spain and Sicily led to the beginnings of Arab scholarship in Europe, the discipline that later became known as Orientalism. In the monasteries of western Europe, studious monks learned Arabic, translated the Quran, and studied other Muslim texts in order to be able to save Christian souls from converting to Islam and, they hoped, at a future time to convert Muslims to Christianity. The monk-scholars also read the biographies of the Prophet and began to write their own versions in order to “prove” that he was a false prophet. Franciscan preachers operating in the Holy Land, Spain, and North Africa used such propaganda in the sermons they preached to captive Muslims.

金帳汗國和“韃靼人的枷鎖”

? ? ? ? ? 穆斯林和基督徒都有理由害怕13世紀的蒙古人入侵。在一個類似于三至五世紀哥特式入侵歐洲的過程中，蒙古人被趕出了東亞的蒙古，并征服了羅斯和東歐的大部分地區(qū)。人們提出了許多入侵的原因，從影響作物生產(chǎn)的氣候變化，到來自中國人對其貿(mào)易路線的威脅，再到其統(tǒng)治者成吉思汗（約1162-1227）的神圣使命感。蒙古人建立了一個在羅斯歷史上稱為“金帳汗國”的國家。他們強大的帝國從中國延伸到歐洲中部。蒙古軍隊不分青紅皂白地征服了伊斯蘭教、拜占庭和日耳曼統(tǒng)治下的領(lǐng)土，在13世紀20年代占領(lǐng)了撒馬爾罕和布哈拉；在13世紀50年代占領(lǐng)了羅斯、中歐、伊朗北部和高加索地區(qū)；并在1258年對巴格達進行了毀滅性的洗劫，燒毀了這個文明世界的“裝飾物”。他們從那里前往敘利亞和巴勒斯坦。在那里，馬穆魯克蘇丹拜巴爾一世在阿音札魯特戰(zhàn)役中擊潰了蒙古帝國的軍隊。

Muslims and Christians alike had reason to fear the Mongol invasions during the 13th century. In a process similar to the Gothic invasions of Europe in the third to fifth centuries, the Mongols were driven out of Mongolia in East Asia and conquered much of Russia and eastern Europe. Numerous reasons have been suggested for the invasions, from climatic change affecting crop production, to threats to their trade routes from the Chinese, to a sense of divine mission of their ruler, Genghis Khan (c. 1162–1227). The Mongols established a state known in Russian annals as the Khanate of the Golden Horde. Their mighty empire extended from China to central Europe. Indiscriminately, Mongol armies conquered territories under Islamic, Byzantine, and German rule, seizing Samarkand and Bukhara in the 1220s; Russia, central Europe, northern Iran, and the Caucasus in the 1250s; and perpetrating the devastating sacking of Baghdad in 1258, burning and destroying what was the ornament of the civilized world. From there they moved on to Syria and Palestine, where the Mamluk sultan al-Zahir Baibars routed them in one of the most extraordinary victories in all world history, the Battle of Ayn Jalut.

? ? ? ? ? 可能是由于在拜巴爾手中的失敗，本世紀第三季度，成吉思汗的孫子、金帳汗國的領(lǐng)主別兒哥（1257-66）皈依了伊斯蘭教。他與埃及的馬穆魯克蘇丹簽訂條約和建立政治往來，開始了將其境內(nèi)的蒙古人和土耳其人打造成一個統(tǒng)一的穆斯林國家的進程。他們在東歐被稱為韃靼人，是以蒙古部落之一的名字命名的。他們從13世紀到15世紀的統(tǒng)治時期在俄羅斯被稱為“韃靼枷鎖”。

Possibly as a result of his defeat at the hands of Baibars, in the third quarter of the century Berke Khan (1257–66), the grandson of Genghis Khan and lord of the Golden Horde, converted to Islam. He entered treaties and political arrangements with the Mamluk sultan of Egypt and began the process that forged the Mongol and Turkish people of his realm into a unified Muslim nation. They were known in eastern Europe as the Tatars, after the name of one of the Mongol tribes. Their period of domination from the 13th to the 15th century was called in Russia the Tatar Yoke.

奧斯曼人

? ? ? ? ? 早在11世紀，土耳其軍隊和遷徙的土耳其部落就已經(jīng)從拜占庭手中奪取了安納托利亞的大部分地區(qū)，將這片曾經(jīng)是希臘和基督教的土地轉(zhuǎn)變?yōu)橥炼浜湍滤沽值耐恋亍；浇痰臇|部堡壘，在漫長世紀中抵御了阿拉伯人的進攻中，第一次遭受了重大失敗。隨著時間的推移，這些失敗重新劃分了基督教和伊斯蘭教之間的邊界。先是在塞爾柱蘇丹的統(tǒng)治下，然后在奧斯曼蘇丹的統(tǒng)治下，土耳其人創(chuàng)造了最偉大和最持久的伊斯蘭帝國之一。讓人聯(lián)想到阿拉伯人第一次來到西班牙，1352年，一支土耳其部隊被招募為一個基督教權(quán)力競爭者的盟友。土耳其人占領(lǐng)了達達尼爾海峽東岸加里波利北部的Tzympe要塞（?impe Castle）。

Already in the 11th century Turkish armies and migrating Turkish tribesmen had won the greater part of Anatolia from the Byzantines, transforming a land once Greek and Christian into a Turkish and Muslim land. The eastern bastion of Christendom, which for so many centuries had withstood the Arabs, suffered the first of a series of defeats. In time these redrew the frontier between Christendom and Islam. First under the Seljuk sultans and then under the Ottoman sultans, the Turks created one of the greatest and most enduring of the Islamic empires. Reminiscent of the first Arab arrival in Spain, a Turkish force in 1352 was recruited as allies of a Christian contender for power. The Turks occupied the fortress of Tzympe north of Gallipoli on the eastern shores of the Dardanelles.

? ? ? ? ? 一個世紀后，巴爾干半島的穆斯林主人發(fā)動了最后的進攻，在1453年將君士坦丁堡納入他們在歐洲和亞洲的新帝國疆域。奧斯曼蘇丹從他們的首都伊斯坦布爾——他們重新命名了君士坦丁堡——發(fā)起了一系列軍事遠征，將他們帶到匈牙利平原。1529年和1683年，穆斯林兩次抵達維也納城墻。在一個半世紀的時間里，土耳其軍隊從布達和貝爾格萊德的基地發(fā)動軍事行動。

A century later the Muslim masters of the whole Balkan Peninsula mounted the final attack that in 1453 added Constantinople to their new imperial structure in Europe and Asia. From their capital in Istanbul—as they renamed Constantinople—the Ottoman sultans launched a series of further military expeditions that took them to the plains of Hungary. Twice, in 1529 and again in 1683, the Muslims reached the walls of Vienna. For a century and a half Turkish armies operated from bases in Buda and Belgrade.

戰(zhàn)爭是文化交流的載體

? ? ? ? ? 在伊斯蘭教興起之前，土耳其人和拜占庭人就已經(jīng)互相爭斗和無情地屠殺了。然而，土耳其人和阿拉伯人向拜占庭士兵傳授了重要的軍事戰(zhàn)術(shù)，他們利用這些戰(zhàn)術(shù)取得了優(yōu)勢。拜占庭的指揮官們在戰(zhàn)場上和戰(zhàn)營中都觀察著土耳其人和阿拉伯人。這些穆斯林的軍事理念如下：始終帶著一支穩(wěn)定而充足的步兵進入戰(zhàn)場；在軍隊的前哨保持一個精心設(shè)計的糾察隊和哨兵，即騎馬的哨兵，以觀察敵人的動向，防止出現(xiàn)意外；避免在敵人的部署和安排不能被理解的破碎地帶作戰(zhàn)；保持大量的預(yù)備隊和側(cè)翼守衛(wèi)；在戰(zhàn)斗中始終保護好后衛(wèi)，如果可能的話，軍隊的兩翼也要有天然的障礙物，如河流、沼澤或懸崖來掩護 [這將挫敗土耳其人對軍隊兩翼或營地守衛(wèi)進行循環(huán)攻擊的慣用手段。］ ；始終加固營地；千萬不要貿(mào)然追擊撤退的部隊，也不要讓步兵在第一次成功的戰(zhàn)斗后走散。

Turks and Byzantines fought and slaughtered one another mercilessly even before the rise of Islam. However, Turks and Arabs taught Byzantine soldiers important military tactics that they used to advantage. Byzantine commanders watched Turks and Arabs both on the battlefield and in the war camp. Stated as rules, these Muslim military concepts were the following: Always take a steady and sufficient body of infantry into the field. Maintain an elaborate screen of pickets and vedettes, mounted sentries placed in advance of the army outpost to observe enemy movements and guard against surprises. Avoid fighting in broken ground where the enemy’s dispositions and arrangements cannot be appreciated or understood. Keep large reserves and flank guards. Fight with the rear guard always protected, and, if possible, the army’s wings also covered by natural obstacles such as rivers, marshes, or cliffs. [That would foil the usual Turkish device of circular attacks on the army’s wings or on the camp guard.] Always fortify the camp. Never rashly pursue a retreating force, and never allow the infantry to get separated after a first successful battle.

? ? ? ? ? 金帳汗國解體后，設(shè)在喀山、阿斯特拉罕和克里米亞的繼承汗國繼續(xù)進行統(tǒng)治。在其無法統(tǒng)治的地方，他們襲擊了東歐的部分地區(qū)。最后一個汗國于1783年在克里米亞滅亡。從1475年起，克里米亞的各汗國成為奧斯曼的附庸。韃靼人的部隊經(jīng)常在奧斯曼人的指揮下與歐洲敵人作戰(zhàn)。在中世紀末期和近現(xiàn)代初期，穆斯林對歐洲的物質(zhì)財富和武裝力量表現(xiàn)出越來越多的尊重。這表現(xiàn)在歐洲富麗堂皇、高效的制造業(yè)和不斷變化的貿(mào)易條件，使歐洲對于穆斯林國家有利可圖。軍事力量的平衡轉(zhuǎn)移到了基督教徒身上，他們給穆斯林帶來了一連串的軍事挫敗。

After the breakup of the Khanate of the Golden Horde, the successor khanates based in Kazan, Astrakhan, and the Crimea continued to rule. Where they could not rule, they raided parts of eastern Europe. The last khanate was extinguished in the Crimea in 1783. From 1475 the khans of the Crimea became vassals of the Ottomans. Tatar forces often fought under Ottoman commanders against European enemies. By the close of the medieval period and the dawn of the early modern period, Muslims evinced increasing respect for the material wealth and armed might of Europe. This was manifested in the opulent, efficient European manufactures and the changing conditions of trade that favored Europe over the Muslim nations. The balance of military power shifted to the Christians, who inflicted on the Muslims a long succession of military defeats.

伊斯蘭帝國的關(guān)鍵人物

Prophet Muhammad (c. 570–632) 穆罕默德

? ? ? ? ? 穆罕默德·伊本·阿卜杜勒·阿拉是先知穆罕默德，是《古蘭經(jīng)》等一系列神圣啟示的接受者。穆罕默德在這些啟示的基礎(chǔ)上建立了一個新的宗教——伊斯蘭教；一個新的政體——烏瑪；以及一個新的文明——Dar al-Islam（和平之家）。622年，他被迫從家鄉(xiāng)麥加遷徙到麥地那，然后建立了宗教和法律結(jié)構(gòu)，指導(dǎo)新興的伊斯蘭社區(qū)的組織?！豆盘m經(jīng)》和穆罕默德的個人榜樣——圣行，是伊斯蘭文明賴以存在的兩座大廈。

Muhammad ibn Abdallah was the prophet Muhammad, the recipient of a series of divine revelations known as the Quran. Muhammad founded a new religion, Islam; a new polity, the umma; and a new civilization, Dar al-Islam, on the basis of these revelations. Forced to migrate from his native Mecca to Medina in 622, he went on to establish the religious and legal structure that guided the organization of the burgeoning Islamic community. The Quran and Muhammad’s personal example, the Sunna, are the two edifices upon which the Islamic civilization was built.

Umar ibn al-Khattab (592–644; r. 634– 644) 歐麥爾·本·赫塔卜

? ? ? ? ?伊斯蘭教正確引導(dǎo)的哈里發(fā)中的第二位，也是伊斯蘭教最重要的軍事指揮官之一。伊斯蘭帝國主要是在歐麥爾統(tǒng)治時期建立的。他從薩珊人手中征服了美索不達米亞和波斯，從拜占庭人手中征服了埃及、敘利亞、巴勒斯坦、北非和亞美尼亞。他開始了伊斯蘭法的編纂過程。歐麥爾清真寺就建在他攻占耶路撒冷后在圣殿山祈禱的地方。他于644年被暗殺。

The second of the rightly guided caliphs of Islam and one of its most important military commanders. The Islamic empire was built mostly during Umar’s reign. He conquered Mesopotamia and Persia from the Sassanians and Egypt, Syria, Palestine, North Africa, and Armenia from the Byzantines. He began the process of the codification of Islamic law. The Mosque of Umar was built on the site where he prayed on the Temple Mount after the capture of Jerusalem. He was assassinated in 644.

Ali ibn Abi Talib (c. 599–661; r. 656– 661) 阿里·本·阿比·塔利卜

? ? ? ? ? 先知穆罕默德的侄子和女婿，受正確引導(dǎo)的哈里發(fā)中的第四位。他與倭馬亞總督穆阿維亞在哈里發(fā)繼承權(quán)上的沖突引發(fā)了伊斯蘭教中遜尼派和什葉派之間的大分裂，并出現(xiàn)了哈里發(fā)運動。阿里和他的黨派，即什葉派，堅信先知指定阿里繼承他的位置。盡管遜尼派和什葉派之間存在分裂，但前者也承認他是穆罕默德生活和古蘭經(jīng)解釋的最權(quán)威來源之一，并頌揚他在伊斯蘭教戰(zhàn)斗中的英雄主義。蘇菲派神秘主義者稱他激發(fā)了神秘主義的崛起。

The nephew and son-in-law of the prophet Muhammad and the fourth of the rightly guided caliphs. His conflict with the Umayyad governor Muawiyya over the succession to the caliphate sparked the great schism in Islam between Sunnis and Shiites and the emergence of the Kharijite movement. Ali and his partisans, the Shia, were convinced that the Prophet had designated Ali to succeed him. Despite the schism between Sunnis and Shiites, the former also recognize him as one of the most authoritative sources of the life of Muhammad and quranic interpretation and extol his heroism in the battles of Islam. Sufi mystics claim him as inspiring the rise of mysticism.

Harun al-Rashid (766–809; r. 786–809) 哈倫·拉希德

? ? ? ? ? 阿拔斯王朝哈里發(fā)中最著名的一位，他的宮廷在《一千零一夜》中得到了永生。在他統(tǒng)治期間，巴格達作為世界上最重要的首都而繁榮起來。哈倫·拉希德與古中國的統(tǒng)治者和查理曼建立了外交關(guān)系，并送他（查理曼）非凡的大象Abu l-Abbas作為禮物。他與拜占庭帝國進行了許多成功的戰(zhàn)斗，并用希臘人的貢品裝飾他的豪華宮廷。

The most famous of the Abbasid caliphs, whose court is immortalized in The Thousand and One Nights. During his reign Baghdad flourished as the preeminent capital of the world. Harun al-Rashid had established diplomatic relations with the ruler of China and with Charlemagne, sending him the extraordinary elephant Abu l-Abbas as a present. He waged successful battles with the Byzantine Empire, financing his sumptuous court with the tribute from the Greeks.

Abd al-Rahman III (891–961; r. 912– 961) 阿卜杜拉赫曼三世

? ? ? ? ? 科爾多瓦的埃米爾和后來的哈里發(fā)，他在安達盧西亞的倭馬亞王朝中統(tǒng)治時間最長、最成功。他于929年宣布建立科爾多瓦倭馬亞王朝哈里發(fā)，以對抗他在北非法蒂瑪和巴格達的對手。在他統(tǒng)治期間，科爾多瓦與巴格達互相抗衡。

Emir and later caliph of Córdoba, he had the longest and most successful of the reigns of the Umayyads of al-Andalus. He declared the Córdoban Umayyad caliphate in 929 to counter his rivals in Fatimid North Africa and Baghdad. During his reign Córdoba rivaled Baghdad.

Saladin (1138–1193; r. 1169–1193) 薩拉丁

? ? ? ? ? 庫爾德人阿尤布王朝的蘇丹，1169年在埃及打敗了法蒂瑪王朝的哈里發(fā)，建立了阿尤布王朝。薩拉丁是穆斯林在圣地對十字軍發(fā)動圣戰(zhàn)的英雄。1187年，他從拉丁十字軍手中重新征服了耶路撒冷，給他們以沉重的打擊。1192年，薩拉丁和英格蘭國王獅心王理查一世（Richard the Lionhearted，1189-99年）簽署了《拉姆拉條約》，雙方同意耶路撒冷將繼續(xù)由穆斯林管理。兩位統(tǒng)治者的相互尊重在歐洲的宮廷浪漫小說中得到了頌揚。

Kurdish Ayyubid sultan who defeated the Fatimid caliphate in Egypt in 1169 and founded the Ayyubid dynasty. Saladin was the hero of the Muslim jihad against the crusaders in the Holy Land. He dealt a crushing blow to the Latin crusaders by reconquering Jerusalem from them in 1187. In 1192 Saladin and the English king Richard the Lionhearted (r. 1189–99) signed the Treaty of Ramla, whereby it was agreed that Jerusalem would remain under Muslim rule. The mutual respect of the two rulers was extolled in the courtly romances of Europe.

《Handbook To Life in The Medieval World》（2008）

By Madeleine Pelner Cosman and Linda Gale Jones??

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