注：英語(yǔ)原文取自最古老版本的帝國(guó)時(shí)代一的幫助文件中，關(guān)于歷史的文本量相當(dāng)巨大，但在win7系統(tǒng)更新后，以win95為基礎(chǔ)的hlp文件被淘汰，如今已經(jīng)很難找到打開hlp文件的方法。如有大佬能提供支援就好了。

注：因?yàn)樵環(huán)lp文件并未隨著羅馬復(fù)興資料片的更新而更新，所以這個(gè)系列不包含新增的羅馬、迦太基、馬其頓和巴爾米拉文明。

注：因?yàn)槟甏眠h(yuǎn)（1996年左右），很多記述可能已經(jīng)與最新的考古發(fā)現(xiàn)有著顯著的差異。

注：蹩腳英語(yǔ)，翻譯腔，懶得潤(rùn)色的語(yǔ)句。

注：英語(yǔ)原文放在前面，漢語(yǔ)翻譯放在后面。

更多資料：

世界地理歷史小常識(shí)65——希臘。CV5643967

世界地理歷史小常識(shí)67——馬其頓。CV5689099

Greek culture (2100 to 146 BC)

The ancient culture with the broadest and most long-lasting impact on the future of Western civilization was that of Greece. The Greeks dominated the known world militarily for only a brief period, but their cultural influence spread farther and lasted much longer. Rediscovered in the West in large part after the Medieval Dark Age, it was an important foundation for the growth of modern western civilization.The Greeks never formed a unified kingdom, but existed as city-states, sometimes working together and sometimes at war with each other. At the zenith of Greek military power under Alexander the Great, they were a collection of city-states in cooperation.?

Location

Greek culture was centered on the mainland of modern Greece but spread to the islands of the Aegean, into the lower Balkans, across the Aegean to the western coast of Anatolia, to Sicily, to parts of North Africa, and to southern France (Marseilles was founded as a Greek colony). The campaigns of Alexander greatly expanded the culture, establishing it in central Anatolia, the Levant, Egypt, Syria, Mesopotamia, and Persia to the borders of India. In the early second century BC, it was possible to travel from the south of modern France to India using only Greek to communicate.

Capital

As a collection of city-states, there was usually no capital of the Greek culture. During the Bronze Age, Mycenea was one of the strongest and richest citadels. During the Archaic and Classical periods, Athens (the cultural center) and Sparta (the strongest military power) vied for prominence. During the brief Greek apogee under Philip and Alexander, the de facto capital was the Macedonian city of Pydna. Following the death of Alexander, his empire was eventually divided into three parts. The Antigonid Dynasty ruled Greece and Macedonia from Pydna. The Selucids ruled Mesopotamia, Anatolia, Syria, the Levant, and Persia from a newly built city, Selucia, on the Tigris River. The Ptolemies ruled Egypt from another newly built city, Alexandria.

Rise to power

The history of ancient Greek culture is divided into several periods: the Bronze Age (2100 to 1200 BC), the Dark Age (1200 to 800 BC), the Archaic Period (800 to 500 BC), the Classical Age (500 to 336 BC), and the Hellenistic Period (336 to 30 BC).The Bronze Age saw the rise of the first cities on the mainland. These were predominantly fortified palaces on hilltops. This culture was named after its greatest citadel, Mycenea. Excavation of Mycenea by Heinrich Schlieman in the 1870's revealed fabulous burial tomb treasures. The Mycenean culture disappeared around 1200 BC following attacks by barbarians. The city of Troy was also sacked around this time.The catastrophe of 1200 BC (described earlier) devastated the economy of Greece and ushered in a Dark Age that lasted about 400 years. Gradually civilization reappeared at old sites, such as Athens, and at new sites such as Sparta and Corinth.By 800 BC the city-states of the mainland were economic and military powers. During the next 300 years, the Archaic Period, the Greeks expanded by establishing colonies across the Aegean in Anatolia (Ionia) and along the central and western Mediterranean coasts. They vied with the Phoenicians for colony sites and trade. The Archaic Period came to an end when the rising eastern power of Persia came into conflict with the Greeks over the Anatolian coast.The period of 500 to 336 BC was the Classical Age of Greece, dominated first by the wars with Persia and then the Peloponnesian civil war between Athens and Sparta. Although this period is defined by military events, it was also a time of many important cultural advances.The Hellenistic Period takes its name from the Greek word Hellene (meaning Greek). This period began with the installation of Alexander as king of Macedon following the assassination of his father. In 13 years of military campaigns, Alexander conquered most of the known world and spread the Greek culture behind his armies. After Alexander's premature death in 323 BC, his empire was eventually divided into three parts. Although these parts fought each other and gradually shrank due to rebellion and attack, the culture of the civilized world remained primarily Greek.

Economy

Grains and bread were staples of the Greek diet but they could be grown only in a few fertile areas. Most of Greece was hilly and not suitable for large farms on the scale of Egypt or Mesopotamia. Farmers grew fruits and vegetables where they could clear fields. On the hillsides they grew olives for food and oil. Further up the hills they grew grapes for wine.Horses were raised mainly in Thessaly and Macedonia where there were open grasslands. Elsewhere they were kept only by the rich. Cattle were kept mainly for milk, pigs and poultry for meat, and sheep for leather and meat. Seafood supplemented diets in coastal areas.The Greeks were renowned for pottery that was both functional and beautiful. Decorations on pottery revealed much about the ancient Greek culture to historians. By carefully studying the changing styles of pottery, historians were able to date it and then use shards to help date excavations and other objects found with it.The Greeks took advantage of their geographic position between the Aegean and Mediterranean Seas to engage in trade. City-states traded among themselves and overseas. Thessaly and Macedonia exported horses, for example, while Athens exported honey and silver. Important Greek exports were oil, wine, pottery, sculpture, metalwork, cloth, and books. Their most important import was grain from the Black Sea region, Egypt, Italy, Sicily, and Cyprus. Other important imports were timber, wool, linen, copper, dyes, silk, spices, and ivory.Coins were first used in Lydia, a small kingdom in northwestern Anatolia, at the end of the seventh century BC. The concept quickly spread to the Ionian Greek colonies and then throughout the Greek culture. The most popular coins were made of silver. City-states celebrated their independence by minting their own coins showing a representative symbol (the owl for Athens and the Pegasus for Corinth, for example).

Religion and culture

The Greeks believed in many gods who were responsible for the living and the dead. Their gods were very human-like.They got married, had children, felt love and jealousy, and sought revenge. Legends of the gods taught what pleased and what angered them. The principal gods were the twelve Olympians thought to live on Mount Olympus. They were led by Zeus, ruler of the heavens. Temples were built to provide earthly homes for individual gods. The Parthenon in Athens, for example, was dedicated to the goddess Athene. Inside was a statue of Athene made of gold and ivory that stood over forty feet high. Offerings of jewelry, pottery, and sculpture were given to the temple. Animals and birds were given to the priests for sacrifice. Festivals were held to please individual gods and persuade them to be munificent.Before an important project was started, an oracle or soothsayer was consulted to learn the will of the gods. The most famous of these was the Oracle of Delphi, where a priestess called the Pythia would voice the will of Apollo. Priests would interpret the Pythia's often vague replies. In one famous example, Croesus, the king of Lydia, asked whether he should invade Persia or not. He was told such an invasion would destroy a great kingdom. He assumed the Persians were the kingdom in question, but in fact Lydia was conquered by Persia.Women in Greece led generally sheltered lives and had little active role in society. They took their social status from their husbands. The emphasis was on having sons and raising them to be citizens and soldiers. Boys were given an extensive education in reading, writing, arithmetic, music, poetry, dancing, and athletics. Both mental and physical development was stressed.Music, poetry, and theater were an important part of the Greek culture. All Greek cities and colonies built a theater or amphitheater.Society consisted of two main groups' free people and slaves. Slaves were owned by free people and were employed as servants and laborers. Slaves were purchased in international slave markets or were prisoners of war. Free men in Athens were either citizens, born to Athenian parents, or metics, born outside of Athens. Both groups were required to serve in the army, but only citizens could become government officials or jurors.

Government

An independent city-state was called a polis. Each consisted of the city and surrounding countryside. The largest of these was Athens, with about one thousand square miles of territory.During the Archaic Period, most city-states were governed by a group of rich landowners. These were the aristoi, meaning best people, or the aristocrats. Resentment of aristocratic rule led to riots when traders and craftsmen began to prosper but had no say in government. Beginning around 650 BC, individuals called tyrants were allowed to rule to keep the peace. Government was improved under an enlightened tyrant but the system was susceptible to corruption. In 508 BC Athens introduced a new system called democracy, in which all citizens took part in their government. Women, foreigners, and slaves had no say.

Architecture

Greek homes were simple structures of mud and brick but their public buildings, especially temples, were beautiful structures of stone. A distinctive feature of Greek architecture was the use of columns supporting horizontal lintels.

Military

During the Bronze Age, the armies of the individual palaces were mainly chariots manned by the richest citizens. These armies were destroyed by barbarians around 1200 BC, sending Greece into its Dark Age.During the Archaic Age, the aristocrats at first dominated the army as cavalry because they alone could afford horses. Foot soldiers came from the poorer classes that could not afford horses or better weapons and armor.Eventually trade and wealth increased, while the cost fell for new weapons made of iron. The cavalry was replaced in importance by a new army of well-equipped foot soldiers called hoplites.Each city had a different system for raising its army. In Athens, all free men aged 20 to 50 could be called upon in time of war. Each of the ten Athenian tribes had to provide enough troops for one regiment and one commander, called a strategoi.Hoplites carried on their left arm a large round shield that extended from neck to thigh. The shield was decorated with a symbol from their family, tribe, or city. They wore bronze helmets with a horsehair crest on top to make the soldier look taller and more powerful. For body protection they wore a cuirass of bronze, or leather and bronze, from shoulder to chest, plus bronze greaves on the front of the lower legs. Their weapons were a long spear and a short iron sword.Hoplites fought in the phalanx, a square of men usually eight ranks deep. It was important that the phalanx move and fight together. Flutes and other musical instruments helped them keep in step. The terrifying hand-to-hand clash of opposing phalanxes called for extreme courage and discipline.The Greeks disdained the use of cavalry and skirmish troops using bows, slings, or javelins. As long as they fought among themselves or were lucky, this was not a problem. Extensive contact with other military systems during the Persian Wars eventually convinced them that the phalanx needed to be supported. The ultimate Greek army employed heavy and light cavalry, light infantry, and skirmishers in support of its heavy hoplite infantry.

Decline and fall

Following the death of Alexander the Great, the city-states of mainland Greece attempted to rebel against Macedonian rule but were defeated in the Lamian War of 323-322 BC. During the next 40 years, the War of the Diadochi contested the division of Alexander's empire. It was eventually divided into three kingdoms (Greece, Egypt, and Persia). These three kingdoms made up the Hellenistic world.The Antigonid Dynasty ruled Greece and Macedon but lost control of their colonies in southern Italy to the Romans in 275 BC. The Greeks supported the Carthaginians against Rome during the Punic Wars and paid for that once the Carthaginians were destroyed. Three Macedonian Wars against Rome resulted in the end of the Antigonid Dynasty in 168 BC. Following an unsuccessful Macedonian revolt, the city-states of Greece became provinces of the Roman Empire in 146 BC.The Selucid Dynasty attempted to rule what had been the enormous Persian Empire. This proved impossible and parts began rebelling very quickly. By 180 BC their kingdom had been halved. In 64 BC the Roman general Pompey seized the Selucid kingdom and incorporated it into the Roman Empire.The Ptolemaic Dynasty consisted only of Egypt. Because of its relative seclusion and wealth, it lasted the longest of the three Hellenistic kingdoms. Queen Cleopatra VII and her husband Marc Antony of Rome were defeated in battle by Octavian at Actium in 31 BC. The last Ptolemy committed suicide and Egypt became part of the Roman Empire in 30 BC.

Legacy

Greek language and culture spread behind Alexander the Great's armies. The Romans in turn adopted much of the Greek culture, preserving it and spreading it to new parts of the world. After the fall of Rome, Greek culture was preserved and expanded upon within the Byzantine Empire and in the Arab world, and passed on to the West following the Renaissance.The legacy of ancient Greece has had an impact on many disciplines, including medicine (the scientific approach to medicine; the Hippocratic Oath taken by doctors), mathematics (Euclidean geometry; the Pythagorean theorem), literature (the Iliad and the Odyssey), theater, poetry, sculpture, language (the Bible's New Testament was written in Greek; thousands of words passed on to modern languages), architecture (the White House; the British Museum), history (Herodutus is regarded as the father of history), politics (democracy), philosophy (all philosophical studies since Plato have been referred to by one writer as mere footnotes to his work), science (the scientific method; laws of nature; the classification of plants and animals; the heliocentric theory), athletics (the Olympic Games), and trade (Greeks established trade routes to India and the Silk Road to Asia).?

希臘文化（公元前2100年至公元前146年）

對(duì)西方文明的未來(lái)影響最廣泛最持久的古代文明就是古希臘。希臘人只在很短一段時(shí)間內(nèi)就統(tǒng)治了已知的世界軍事，但他們的文化影響越來(lái)越深遠(yuǎn)，持續(xù)時(shí)間更長(zhǎng)。西方在中世紀(jì)黑暗時(shí)代再次發(fā)現(xiàn)了大部分希臘文化，這成為了現(xiàn)代西方文明發(fā)展的重要基礎(chǔ)。希臘人從未形成統(tǒng)一的王國(guó)，而是作為城邦存在，有時(shí)合作，有時(shí)則互相爭(zhēng)斗。亞歷山大大帝的帶領(lǐng)下，希臘軍事力量達(dá)到頂峰，此時(shí)他們便是作為聯(lián)合的城邦一起合作。

位置

希臘文化以現(xiàn)在希臘的主體為中心，擴(kuò)散到愛琴海島、下巴爾干半島，穿過(guò)愛琴海到達(dá)安納托利亞西海岸、西西里島、北非部分地區(qū)、法國(guó)南部（馬賽即為古希臘殖民地）。亞歷山大的運(yùn)動(dòng)大大擴(kuò)散了文化，直到安納托利亞中部、黎凡特、埃及、敘利亞、美索不達(dá)米亞、波斯甚至印度的邊界。在公元前二世紀(jì)初，很有可能只需要用希臘語(yǔ)就能在從法國(guó)南部到印度的廣大區(qū)域內(nèi)無(wú)障礙交流。

首都

作為城邦聯(lián)合，希臘文化一般不存在首都。在青銅時(shí)代，邁錫尼是最強(qiáng)大最富有的城邦之一。在上古和古典時(shí)期，雅典（文化中心）和斯巴達(dá)（軍事中心）爭(zhēng)相凸顯。在腓力大帝和亞歷山大控制希臘的短期內(nèi)，事實(shí)上的首都是馬其頓的皮德納。亞歷山大死后，帝國(guó)最后分為三部分，安提戈涅王朝在皮德納控制了希臘和馬其頓，塞琉西王朝在底格里斯河上新建的城市塞琉西亞控制了美索不達(dá)米亞、安納托利亞、敘利亞、黎凡特、波斯，托勒密王朝在另一個(gè)新建城市亞歷山大里亞控制埃及。

發(fā)展壯大

古希臘文明歷史分為幾個(gè)時(shí)期：青銅時(shí)代（公元前2100年至公元前1200年）、黑暗時(shí)代（公元前1200至800年）、上古時(shí)代（公元前800至500年）、古典時(shí)代（公元前500至336年）、希臘化時(shí)代（公元前336至30年）。青銅時(shí)代見證了大陸第一批城邦的興起，主要是山頂?shù)膹?qiáng)化宮殿。這個(gè)文化以最強(qiáng)大的邁錫尼城堡命名。海因里?！な┝新?970年代發(fā)掘了邁錫尼，揭示了神話般的墓葬、珍寶。公元前1200年左右，邁錫尼文明在海民襲擊之后消失。特洛伊城也在這個(gè)時(shí)期被摧毀。公元前1200年的災(zāi)難摧毀了希臘經(jīng)濟(jì)，并迎來(lái)了一個(gè)持續(xù)了400多年的黑暗時(shí)代。漸漸地，文明再次出現(xiàn)在例如雅典古城，以及新興的斯巴達(dá)、科林斯等地。公元前800年，大陸的城邦是主要的經(jīng)濟(jì)、軍事力量。在未來(lái)三百年的上古時(shí)代中，希臘人通過(guò)愛琴海在安納托利亞（愛奧尼亞）建立殖民地，并沿著中西部地中海擴(kuò)張，與腓尼基人爭(zhēng)奪殖民地和貿(mào)易。當(dāng)東方波斯的力量與安納托利亞的希臘人發(fā)生沖突時(shí)，上古時(shí)代結(jié)束了。公元前500年至公元前336年是希臘的經(jīng)典時(shí)代，首先是希臘波斯戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)，其次是伯羅奔尼撒戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)，希臘與斯巴達(dá)的內(nèi)戰(zhàn)。雖然這個(gè)時(shí)期是由軍事活動(dòng)所定義的，但也是許多重要的文化進(jìn)步時(shí)代。希臘化時(shí)代以希臘語(yǔ)的希臘命名。這個(gè)時(shí)期亞歷山大作為馬其頓國(guó)王，因?yàn)樗赣H遭暗殺即位。在13年的軍事行動(dòng)中，亞歷山大征服了大多數(shù)西方已知的世界，并將希臘文化傳遍各地。亞歷山大在公元前323年過(guò)早死亡，他的帝國(guó)最后分為三個(gè)部分，雖然這些部分相互爭(zhēng)斗，由于叛亂和襲擊而逐漸萎縮，但這些地方的文化仍然是希臘語(yǔ)文化。

經(jīng)濟(jì)

谷物和面包是希臘飲食的主食，但是它們只能在少數(shù)肥沃地區(qū)種植。希臘大部分地區(qū)是丘陵，不適合興建埃及或美索不達(dá)米亞這樣的大型農(nóng)場(chǎng)。農(nóng)民種植水果蔬菜，只需要清出土地即可。在山坡上，他們種植了橄欖來(lái)提供食物和油。后來(lái)也開始種葡萄來(lái)釀酒。馬主要在色薩利和馬其頓這種有廣闊草原的地方養(yǎng)殖。在其它區(qū)域，它們只由富人養(yǎng)育。牛主要用于采集牛奶，豬和家禽用來(lái)肉食，羊則是為了皮毛和肉食。沿海地區(qū)可用海鮮補(bǔ)充飲食。希臘人以精美實(shí)用的陶器出名，陶器上的裝飾表達(dá)了歷史學(xué)家對(duì)古希臘文化的看法。通過(guò)仔細(xì)研究陶器不斷變化的風(fēng)格，歷史學(xué)家就能了解它，然后使用碎片來(lái)協(xié)助挖掘或發(fā)現(xiàn)其他的物件。希臘人利用了愛琴海和地中海之間的地理位置來(lái)進(jìn)行貿(mào)易。城邦國(guó)家在海外貿(mào)易，色薩利和馬其頓出口馬，雅典出口蜂蜜和白銀。整個(gè)希臘而言，主要的出口商品是橄欖油、葡萄酒、陶器、雕塑、金屬制品、布和書籍。他們最重要的進(jìn)口商品是黑海地區(qū)、埃及、意大利、西西里和塞浦路斯的糧食。其他的重要進(jìn)口商品有木材、羊毛、亞麻、銅、染料、絲綢、香料和象牙。公元前七世紀(jì)末，錢幣首先在位于安納托利亞西北的呂底亞小國(guó)使用，這一概念很快傳播到愛奧尼亞的希臘殖民地，然后遍及希臘。最流行的硬幣由銀制成，城市通過(guò)鑄造帶有自己獨(dú)特符號(hào)的硬幣來(lái)慶祝自己的獨(dú)立，例如代表雅典的貓頭鷹和科林斯的神馬。

宗教與文化

希臘人相信許多負(fù)責(zé)生死的神。他們的神是非常人性化的，他們結(jié)婚、有孩子、感受到愛和嫉妒并尋求報(bào)復(fù)。神話講述了什么讓他們高興或憤怒。主要的神是十二個(gè)居住在奧林匹斯山的，他們認(rèn)為他們應(yīng)該住在那。他們由宙斯統(tǒng)治者領(lǐng)導(dǎo)。寺廟被建造為神靈在地球上的私人住所。例如希臘的巴特農(nóng)神廟，獻(xiàn)給了雅典娜女神。里面有雅典娜的塑像，由高達(dá)四十英尺高的金子和象牙制成。犧牲品、首飾、陶器和雕塑都獻(xiàn)給了圣殿。動(dòng)物和鳥類被獻(xiàn)給祭司作為肉食。人們舉行節(jié)日來(lái)取悅特定的神，勸說(shuō)他們始終保持慷慨。在重要事件發(fā)生前，會(huì)咨詢神諭來(lái)了解神的意志，其中最著名的是德爾菲神諭臺(tái)，哪里的一個(gè)叫比迪亞的女祭司會(huì)表達(dá)阿波羅的意志。祭祀會(huì)解釋比迪亞含混其詞的答復(fù)。在一個(gè)著名的例子中，呂底亞國(guó)王克羅蘇斯詢問(wèn)是否應(yīng)該入侵波斯。他被告知這會(huì)毀滅一個(gè)偉大的王國(guó)。他以為被毀滅的是波斯，但結(jié)果自己的王國(guó)被毀滅了。希臘的女人通常養(yǎng)育孩子，在社會(huì)上幾乎沒有積極的作用。他們從丈夫身上取得社會(huì)地位，重點(diǎn)是把兒子培養(yǎng)成公民和士兵。男孩在閱讀、寫作、算術(shù)、詩(shī)歌、音樂、舞蹈和田徑方面受到廣泛的教育。心理和生理發(fā)展都受到重視。音樂、詩(shī)歌和戲劇是希臘文化的重要組成部分。所有希臘城市和殖民地都建立了一個(gè)劇院或露天劇場(chǎng)。社會(huì)組織主要包括兩個(gè)主要團(tuán)體：自由人和奴隸。奴隸為自由人所有，并被雇用為仆役或勞工。奴隸是在國(guó)際奴隸市場(chǎng)上購(gòu)買的，或者是戰(zhàn)俘。雅典的自由人是雅典父母生的公民以及雅典以外出生的學(xué)者。這兩個(gè)團(tuán)體都被要求在軍隊(duì)任職，只有公民才能成為政府官員或陪審團(tuán)員。

政府

獨(dú)立的城邦被稱為Polis。每個(gè)都由城市和周圍的鄉(xiāng)村組成。其中最大的是雅典，有大約一千平方里的領(lǐng)土，在上古時(shí)期，大多數(shù)城邦被一群富有的土地?fù)碛姓呓y(tǒng)治。他們被稱為阿里斯托伊，意思是貴族，后來(lái)稱為英文“貴族”的來(lái)源。貴族統(tǒng)治導(dǎo)致了怨恨，原因是貿(mào)易商人和工匠的繁榮卻沒有帶來(lái)應(yīng)有的話語(yǔ)權(quán)，并引起了騷亂。公元前650年左右，被稱為暴民的人們被允許統(tǒng)治來(lái)維護(hù)和平。政府在一個(gè)開明的國(guó)君下得到改善，但這一制度導(dǎo)致了腐敗。公元前508年，雅典引入了一個(gè)名為民主的新制度，所有公民都參與其中。婦女、外國(guó)人和奴隸沒有話語(yǔ)權(quán)。

建筑

希臘的家園是簡(jiǎn)單的泥磚建筑，但是公共建筑，尤其是寺廟，使用精美的石頭建造。希臘建筑的一個(gè)獨(dú)特特征是使用支撐橫梁的一列柱子。

軍事

在青銅時(shí)代，個(gè)別宮殿的軍隊(duì)主要是由最富有公民提供的戰(zhàn)車。這些軍隊(duì)在公元前1200年左右被野蠻人摧毀，將希臘送入了黑暗時(shí)代。在上古時(shí)代，貴族們首先將將軍們統(tǒng)治為騎兵，因?yàn)橹挥兴麄兡茇?fù)擔(dān)的起馬。步兵來(lái)自不能負(fù)擔(dān)馬或更好武器盔甲的較貧窮階級(jí)。隨著貿(mào)易和財(cái)富增加，鐵制新武器成本下降。騎兵被重新裝備為一批名叫Hoplite的精銳步兵隊(duì)，每個(gè)城市都有不同的征兵制度。在雅典，20至50歲所有自由男子都可在戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)時(shí)被召喚。十個(gè)雅典部落中的每一個(gè)都必須為一個(gè)團(tuán)和指揮官提供足夠的部隊(duì)，稱為“戰(zhàn)術(shù)”。他們的左臂上攜帶一個(gè)從頸部到大腿都能護(hù)住的大圓盾。盾牌用家族、部落或城市圖標(biāo)裝飾。他們穿著頂上有馬毛頂?shù)你~頭盔，使士兵看上去更高大。為了保護(hù)身體，他們穿著青銅或皮銅混合的鎧甲，從肩膀到胸部以及小腿前面都有保護(hù)。他們的武器是一把長(zhǎng)矛和一把短鐵劍。重裝步兵在方陣中戰(zhàn)斗，方陣是一個(gè)通常八人方的方陣。方陣中的士兵一起移動(dòng)戰(zhàn)斗，這十分重要。長(zhǎng)笛或其他樂器用于幫助他們保持步伐。反方陣的對(duì)手需要極端的勇氣和紀(jì)律。希臘人蔑視使用弓箭、吊索或標(biāo)槍的騎兵和小股部隊(duì)。只要他們自己打或者足夠幸運(yùn)，一般都不是問(wèn)題。在波斯戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)期間與其他軍事系統(tǒng)的廣泛接觸使他們相信，方陣需要得到支持。最后希臘部隊(duì)使用重型輕騎兵、輕步兵和沖鋒步兵來(lái)支持其重裝步兵。

衰落與滅亡

在亞歷山大大帝去世之后，希臘的大城邦試圖反抗馬其頓的統(tǒng)治，但是在公元前323至322年的拉米亞戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)中失敗。在未來(lái)的40多年里，狄奧多西戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)改變了亞歷山大帝國(guó)，最終使其分裂為三部分（希臘、埃及和波斯）。這三個(gè)王國(guó)組成了希臘語(yǔ)世界。安提戈涅王朝統(tǒng)治了希臘和馬其頓，在公元前275年，他們?cè)谝獯罄喜勘涣_馬擊敗，失去了殖民地。希臘人支持迦太基人在布匿戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)中對(duì)抗羅馬，但迦太基人被摧毀，資金付之東流。公元前146年，羅馬發(fā)動(dòng)了三次馬其頓戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)，征服了安提戈涅王朝，伴隨著一次不成功的反抗，希臘城邦淪為羅馬帝國(guó)的省份。塞琉西亞王朝試圖控制波斯帝國(guó)的偉大成就，但后來(lái)被證實(shí)是不可能的，零星的反叛迅速擴(kuò)大。公元前180年，他們的版圖已經(jīng)縮小到一半，公元前64年，羅馬將軍龐培征服了塞琉西亞王朝，將其并入羅馬共和國(guó)。托勒密王朝僅由埃及組成，由于其相對(duì)的沉默和富有，持續(xù)時(shí)間在三個(gè)希臘化國(guó)家中最長(zhǎng)。但在公元前31年，克里奧帕特拉七世女王介入了丈夫馬克安東尼和屋大維之間奪取羅馬權(quán)力的戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)，在亞克星被擊敗，最終自殺。埃及則在公元前30年成為羅馬帝國(guó)的一部分。

遺產(chǎn)

希臘語(yǔ)言和文化在亞歷山大大帝軍隊(duì)的傳播之后，羅馬人反過(guò)來(lái)采取了大部分的希臘文化，保存并傳播的世界新的地方。羅馬滅亡后，希臘文化在拜占庭帝國(guó)和阿拉伯世界被保存和擴(kuò)展，并在文藝復(fù)興時(shí)期傳遍西方。古希臘遺產(chǎn)包括醫(yī)學(xué)在內(nèi)的諸多學(xué)科（科學(xué)的醫(yī)學(xué)方法、醫(yī)生采取的希波克拉底誓言）、數(shù)學(xué)（歐幾里德幾何、畢達(dá)哥拉斯定理）、文學(xué)（伊利亞特和奧德賽）、戲劇、詩(shī)歌、雕塑、語(yǔ)言（圣經(jīng)的新約以希臘語(yǔ)寫成，后來(lái)成為了數(shù)千條現(xiàn)代習(xí)語(yǔ)）、建筑（白宮和大英博物館的借鑒）、歷史（希洛多圖斯被視為歷史之父）、政治（民主）、哲學(xué)（自從柏拉圖以來(lái)所有的哲學(xué)研究被認(rèn)為是他的工作的腳注）、科學(xué)（科學(xué)方法、自然規(guī)律、植物動(dòng)物分類學(xué)、日心說(shuō)）、田徑（奧運(yùn)會(huì)）和貿(mào)易（希臘人建立的通往印度的貿(mào)易路線以及到亞洲的絲綢之路）